ISSN 3103-1129

Septiembre, 2026

Edición Especial. Vol. 4, No. 8, 79-91

https://doi.org/10.53877/q09phd46

KIRIA, 4(8), 2026 Revista Científica Multidisciplinaria

https://revistasfiecyt.com/index.php/kiria

The influence of task-based language teaching on the development of

english reading skills in vulnerable adult learners

Enseñanza de idiomas basada en tareas y desarrollo de habilidades de lectura

en estudiantes adultos vulnerables

Andrea Alejandra Cevallos Valverde

Universidad Indoamerica. Ecuador.

acevallos25@indoamerica.edu.ec

https://orcid.org/0009-0009-1300-9905

Maria Augusta Heredia Quiroz

Universidad Indoamerica. Ecuador.

mheredia15@indoamerica.edu.ec

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3919-4482

Fecha de recepción: 17 de julio de 2026

Fecha de aceptación: 06 de agosto de 2026

Fecha de publicación: 15 de septiembre de 2026

Como citar: Cevallos Valverde, A. A. y Heredia Quiroz, M. A. (2026). The influence of task-based language teaching

on the development of english reading skills in vulnerable adult learners. KIRIA: Revista Científica Multidisciplinaria.

4(8), pp. 79-91. https://doi.org/10.53877/q09phd46

ABSTRACT

This study analyzes the influence of task-based learning on the development of English

reading skills in vulnerable adults enrolled in the RIOKUNA program at the Municipal

Vocational Training Center in Riobamba, Ecuador. The main objective was to measure

changes in participants' reading performance before and after a TBLT-based intervention. The

methodology employed a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design with a single group,

applied to 98 vulnerable adult learners who participated in 10 class sessions. A reading test

adapted to the Cambridge A1-A2 format was used, focusing on functional and technical texts

related to vocational training. The results showed a significant improvement in participants'

reading performance. Additionally, an increase in students' motivation and self-efficacy

toward reading in English was observed, suggesting that TBLT can be effective in teaching

English in technical training contexts. This study contributes to the literature on language

teaching for vulnerable adults and highlights the importance of adapting English language

teaching to specific professional needs.

KEYWORDS: reading skills, vulnerable adults, english language teaching, technical

training.

RESUMEN

Este estudio analiza la influencia del aprendizaje basado en tareas en el desarrollo de las

habilidades de lectura en inglés en adultos vulnerables inscritos en el programa RIOKUNA

del Centro Municipal de Formación Profesional de Riobamba, Ecuador. El objetivo principal

fue medir los cambios en el desempeño lector de los participantes antes y después de una

intervención basada en TBLT. La metodología empleó un diseño cuasiexperimental pretest-

postest con un solo grupo, aplicado a 98 adultos vulnerables que participaron en 10 sesiones

The influence of task-based language teaching on the development of english reading skills in vulnerable adult

learners

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de clase. Se utilizó una prueba de lectura adaptada al formato Cambridge A1-A2, centrada en

textos funcionales y técnicos relacionados con la formación profesional. Los resultados

mostraron una mejora significativa en el desempeño lector de los participantes. Además, se

observó un aumento en la motivación y la autoeficacia de los estudiantes hacia la lectura en

inglés, lo que sugiere que el TBLT puede ser eficaz en la enseñanza del inglés en contextos de

formación técnica. Este estudio contribuye a la literatura sobre la enseñanza de idiomas para

adultos vulnerables y resalta la importancia de adaptar la enseñanza del inglés a las

necesidades profesionales específicas.

PALABRAS CLAVE: habilidades de lectura, adultos vulnerables, enseñanza del

inglés, formación técnica.

INTRODUCTION

Currently, the role of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) in improving English reading

skills has become increasingly important, especially in socially diverse educational settings

such as the Riobamba Municipal Craft Training Center. TBLT organizes instruction around

tasks as the core unit for planning, teaching, and assessment. This approach prioritizes

meaning-focused communication while allowing attention to linguistic form to emerge

during task performance (Ellis et al., 2019). In this study, vulnerable adult learners are defined

as individuals aged 18 or older whose circumstances may limit their capacity to protect their

well-being without support, thereby increasing exposure to risk and exclusion (Herring,

2016). Within this framework, the English component is approached as technical English in

an ESP orientation, emphasizing the language required for specific occupational purposes

(Johns & Dudley-Evans, 1991). Instruction should go beyond repetition or memorization,

which can reduce engagement. TBLT facilitates connecting reading to authentic tasks relevant

to craft training, entrepreneurship, and employability.

The study focuses on a specific educational context. RIOKUNA learners participate in

technical and complementary training, yet many encounter barriers to developing English

reading skills within the technical English component. These challenges include interrupted

schooling, heterogeneous educational levels, limited time due to family and work

commitments, and low perceived relevance of English reading for vocational objectives. In

similar vocational environments, low reading engagement often coincides with reduced

motivation when learners perceive English reading as difficult or disconnected from their

specialization (Yu et al., 2025). Hence, this research examines whether TBLT can link reading

to practical craft-related tasks and enhance reading performance in this population.

The RIOKUNA program prioritizes equity and inclusion, serving primarily women.

Between 2020 and 2024, the program graduated 272 artisans, with recent cohorts exceeding

100 learners, demonstrating its reach and highlighting the importance of strengthening

complementary training outcomes. What's more, the national artisanal training framework

establishes a one-year program of 1,920 hours, including an “administration of workshops”

axis that explicitly incorporates technical English (Ministerio del Trabajo del Ecuador, 2021).

This structure provides a formal curricular space for reading development. Instruction based

solely on repetition or decontextualized translation may render English distant and minimally

useful, reducing participation and limiting reading progress.

Lastly, problematization requires moving from contextual observation to a knowledge

gap. Scholars emphasize that describing practical difficulties is insufficient; researchers must

identify inconsistencies in existing knowledge (Bauce, 2007; Pasek de Pinto, 2008; Quintana,

2008; Sánchez Puentes, 1993). TBLT is well-established in EFL research, with empirical studies

showing positive effects on reading comprehension and motivation (Chen & Wang, 2019; Ellis

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et al., 2019; Ismail et al., 2023). Nevertheless, evidence is limited regarding its effectiveness for

vulnerable adult learners in municipal, non-formal craft training programs. Many previous

studies use single-institution, quasi-experimental pretest–posttest designs with convenience

samples. While valuable for classroom effectiveness, these designs limit generalization and

require careful replication in socially vulnerable adult education contexts (Ismail et al., 2023;

Zhang et al., 2024).

On this point, the phenomenon must be framed within its spatiotemporal context. The

study was conducted in Riobamba, Ecuador, at the Municipal Craft Training Center,

specifically within the RIOKUNA program during the 2025–2026 academic period. The

program operates under a local free-training policy and the national regulatory framework

established by Ministerial Agreement MDT-2021-236, which defines a one-year training

structure. Technical English is part of the official curriculum and aims to strengthen skills

related to work, workshop management, and productive development. Consequently,

improving English reading is both an academic objective and a practical need linked to

employability and entrepreneurship.

Describing the research participants is essential for delimiting the study. The sample

includes approximately 90–100 adult learners, primarily women, enrolled in both craft

specialties offered by the Center. Many learners face social, economic, or mobility-related

challenges. Their educational trajectories often include interrupted schooling, limited study

routines, and heterogeneous prior experiences with English. As a result, their reading needs

are practical and task-oriented, focusing on understanding instructions, identifying technical

vocabulary, following procedures, and recognizing materials. Task-Based Language Teaching

(TBLT) is particularly relevant in this context because it links reading to meaningful, real-

world tasks.

The central knowledge gap remains unresolved. Although TBLT is supported by

theory and empirical evidence in other contexts, its effectiveness in enhancing English reading

among these learners is unclear. Besides, it is not well established how TBLT influences factors

such as motivation, self-efficacy, participation, and retention. In Quintana’s (2008) terms, the

gap is not merely the scarcity of studies but the absence of contextualized evidence to guide

the selection of appropriate pedagogical approaches. Thus, this study investigates the

influence of TBLT on English reading development in the RIOKUNA program and seeks to

generate evidence to inform inclusive, practice-oriented EFL instruction.

This research explores how Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is associated with

the development of English reading skills, treating TBLT as the influencing variable and

reading development as the expected outcome. Accordingly, the guiding research question is:

What is the influence of TBLT on the development of English reading skills in vulnerable adult

learners enrolled in the RIOKUNA program at the Riobamba Municipal Craft Training Center

during the 2025–2026 academic period? This formulation links theory and context and

supports evidence generation for inclusive EFL practice in municipal craft training.

General Objective. To analyze the influence of TBLT on the development of English

reading skills in vulnerable adult learners enrolled in the RIOKUNA program at the

Riobamba Municipal Craft Training Center.

Specific Objectives. (1) To measure vulnerable adult learners’ baseline English reading

performance before the TBLT intervention using a context-relevant reading assessment. (2) To

compare English reading performance before and after implementing TBLT-based reading

tasks aligned with craft-training needs. (3) To identify changes in reading-related affective

variables after the TBLT intervention.

Research Hypotheses. H₁: TBLT produces a statistically significant improvement in

English reading skills among vulnerable adult learners in RIOKUNA when comparing pretest

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and posttest results. H₀: TBLT does not produce a statistically significant improvement in

English reading skills among vulnerable adult learners in RIOKUNA when comparing pretest

and posttest results.

Article Structure. The paper is structured into different sections to facilitate

understanding; it begins with an overview of the theoretical framework and relevant

literature. The following section describes the research design, participants, instruments, and

data collection procedures. Afterwards, the results are presented, including the quantitative

findings and, where appropriate, supporting qualitative evidence; the discussion interprets

the results in relation to previous research and the local context; and the final section presents

conclusions, limitations, and implications for inclusive EFL practice in municipal craft

training settings.

State of the art

Research conducted worldwide consistently shows that developing English reading skills is

essential for successful foreign language learning. It supports vocabulary growth,

grammatical awareness, and both oral and written production. Conversely, synthesis studies

and applied research describe reading as an interactive process rather than a passive activity.

It requires activating prior knowledge, using reading strategies, and engaging learners in

communicative work around texts (Grabe & Stoller, 2019; Willis, 1996). In this regard, this

perspective aligns with Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), which relies on authentic and

meaningful tasks that promote functional language use (Ellis et al., 2019).

Operational definition. In this study, reading skills are operationalized as

comprehension at three dimensions: literal, inferential, and critical (evaluative). Literal

comprehension involves recognizing explicitly stated details. Inferential comprehension

involves deriving implicit meaning and connecting ideas across the text. Critical/evaluative

comprehension focuses on judging information and author intent using textual evidence (Day

& Park, 2005).

Evidence from EFL contexts suggests that TBLT can improve language learning

outcomes, particularly when tasks include clear goals, collaboration, and problem-solving. In

reading-focused studies, TBLT has been associated with gains in comprehension and

engagement. In contrast, traditional, form-focused instruction has shown less impact on

reading motivation and learner engagement. Additionally, TBLT has been linked to higher

reading motivation and reduced anxiety in L2 reading (Chen & Wang, 2019; Ismail et al.,

2023). Research on reading self-efficacy also indicates that task cycles supported by feedback

can strengthen learners’ confidence in handling reading tasks, which may contribute to

sustained reading development (Zhang et al., 2024).

Critical comparison. Methodologically, much of this evidence comes from quasi-

experimental pretest–posttest designs. These studies often take place in single institutions and

use convenience samples. Unlike multi-institutional or longitudinal studies, these designs are

useful for classroom effectiveness research but can limit generalization to socially vulnerable

adult education contexts. Many studies report statistical significance but omit effect sizes or

longer-term follow-up. Consequently, it is difficult to compare the magnitude and durability

of TBLT effects across settings, especially when control groups are absent or not equivalent at

baseline.

Recent vocational education research provides useful parallels for the present study.

For example, Yu, Singh, and Mulyadi (2025) examined vocational students in China and found

that TBLT can increase reading motivation when tasks are closely connected to learners’

academic and occupational goals. Unlike typical school-based samples, these learners had

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heterogeneous educational trajectories and low initial motivation toward english, which

resembles the learner profile at the Riobamba municipal craft training center (Yu et al., 2025).

Such evidence emphasizes the value of task relevance and contextualized learning for

promoting reading engagement and motivation in diverse adult populations.

In addition, the study modelo de aprendizaje basado en tareas para mejorar la

competencia lectora, published in conectividad, supports the use of Willis’s (1996) framework

to develop reading proficiency through tasks focused on comprehension and reading

strategies (Nagua et al., 2025). The study reports higher posttest outcomes for learners

exposed to task-based instruction compared with those receiving conventional teaching

within a quasi-experimental design. However, unlike the present study, the sample came

from a general educational population rather than adult technical learners. Despite this, the

instructional logic is transferable to vulnerable adult learners in technical training when tasks

are adapted to learners’ schooling levels, work experience, and practical needs.

More recent research has shifted attention from reading scores alone to motivational

and self-efficacy variables. For instance, transforming reading self-efficacy in efl classrooms:

the role of task-based instruction suggests that task-based learning enhances learners'

confidence in their reading abilities through the four sources identified by Bandura (1997,

2011): successful performance, observational learning, verbal encouragement, and emotional

self-regulation (Wordofa et al., 2025). This framework is particularly relevant for vulnerable

adult learners, who may enter programs with limited prior academic success, higher anxiety

toward reading tasks, and constrained time for independent study. In contrast to standard

school populations, these learners benefit from scaffolded tasks, peer modeling, supportive

feedback, and low-threat collaborative work, which increase persistence and engagement.

In spite of that, a comparative review of the literature reveals an important limitation.

Most studies focus on secondary, upper-secondary, or university students, whereas few

examine vulnerable adults enrolled in technical-craft training programs with explicit gender

and inclusion perspectives. Furthermore, the evidence base is dominated by Asian and

African contexts, whereas Latin American research is scarce. In several cases, existing studies

emphasize general academic performance rather than English reading development in

socially vulnerable populations. Consequently, this gap highlights the relevance of

conducting research in Riobamba.

Synthesis of gaps. This review identifies three main gaps. First, there is a population

gap: most TBLT reading studies focus on adolescents or mainstream university students,

unlike the current study, which targets vulnerable adult learners in non-formal, municipal

training. Second, there is a context gap: evidence from Latin American municipal craft-

training settings with explicit gender and inclusion goals remains limited. Third, there is an

integration gap: many studies analyze reading outcomes or motivation in isolation, rather

than examining reading development alongside vulnerability-related constraints that shape

participation and persistence.

Concerning this, another tension concerns how researchers define and measure

outcomes. Many studies focus on reading comprehension, motivation, or overall

achievement. Conversely, few examine reading skills together with motivation and social

vulnerability in the same analysis. This omission limits understanding of how TBLT operates

when learning is influenced by extra-academic factors such as caregiving responsibilities,

human mobility, informal employment, interrupted schooling, or unequal access to digital

resources. In contrast, adult education research consistently reports these constraints as

barriers that significantly shape participation and learning outcomes among marginalized

learners (Flynn et al., 2011). Thus, in the Riobamba Municipal Craft Training Center, these

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conditions should be considered structural features of the learning context rather than

secondary background factors.

Accordingly, the present study is situated at an underexplored intersection: TBLT, English

reading, vulnerable adult learners, and craft training with a gender perspective. Unlike most

existing research, which centers on adolescents or university students, this focus expands

TBLT scholarship beyond traditional school settings. In addition, it frames technical English

as a tool for productive inclusion. Within this approach, English reading is not treated as

isolated content. Instead, it is integrated into real-world tasks, such as reading labels, catalogs,

manuals, biosafety protocols, product sheets, and digital resources related to beauty, tailoring,

and entrepreneurship.

Contribution of the study. Theoretically, this research extends TBLT reading

scholarship by linking reading development to vulnerability-related factors, including

participation constraints and reading self-efficacy, within adult craft-training contexts.

Methodologically, it strengthens evidence by testing a TBLT intervention in a municipal, non-

university setting and using reading measures aligned with vocationally relevant text types

and clearly defined comprehension levels. In contrast to conventional studies conducted in

formal schooling, this study provides context-specific evidence that supports inclusive

training. Socially, it produces actionable insights to enhance technical English reading as a

capability connected to employability and entrepreneurship. As a result, it contributes to local

productive insertion goals for a population prioritized by equity and gender-focused policies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research adopted a quantitative approach using a one-group quasi-experimental pretest–

posttest design, aiming to examine changes in English reading performance following a Task-

Based Language Teaching (TBLT) intervention. This design was selected because it allows the

identification of within-group changes over time and provides empirical evidence regarding

participants’ progress before and after the instructional intervention. However, given the

absence of a control group, the findings should be interpreted with caution, as the design does

not allow the exclusive attribution of observed improvements to the TBLT intervention. Other

factors, such as maturation processes, familiarity with the assessment instruments (testing

effects), or external events occurring during the intervention period, may have also

contributed to changes in participants’ performance. Therefore, the results are interpreted as

evidence of improvement associated with the implementation of TBLT within this specific

educational context rather than as definitive causal effects.

Institutional authorization for the study was granted by the administrative authorities

of the RIOKUNA program, and all participants provided informed consent before the data

collection process began. The research procedures followed standard ethical practices in

educational research by protecting participants’ confidentiality, ensuring voluntary

participation, and allowing individuals to withdraw from the study at any stage without

consequences. Although the RIOKUNA program does not maintain a formal institutional

review board (IRB), all ethical considerations were carefully observed under the program’s

administrative oversight.

The reading test was designed to align with Common European Framework of

Reference for Languages (CEFR) A1–A2 descriptors, including the ability to understand short

functional texts, identify specific information, and follow simple instructions. The test was

based on the Cambridge assessment format to reflect authentic reading activities appropriate

for this proficiency level. It comprised 35 items distributed across five sections, including

multiple-choice, matching, and short-response tasks. A scoring rubric was applied to evaluate

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performance across three reading comprehension dimensions: literal comprehension,

inferential comprehension, and critical/evaluative comprehension. Each correct response

received one point, resulting in a maximum possible score of 35 points.

The study was conducted in the RIOKUNA program at the Riobamba Municipal Craft

Training Center during the 2025–2026 academic period. The sample consisted of 98 vulnerable

adult learners who were enrolled and actively participating during the intervention. A

convenience sampling approach was employed based on participant accessibility, enrollment

status, and regular attendance. The inclusion criteria were: (a) enrollment in the program, (b)

being 18 years of age or older, (c) attendance of at least 80% of instructional sessions, and (d)

provision of informed consent. The exclusion criteria included: (a) attendance below 80%, (b)

withdrawal from the program during the intervention period, or (c) failure to complete either

the pretest or posttest assessment.

In addition to the reading test, the study employed two complementary instruments:

(1) a questionnaire assessing affective variables associated with reading, specifically reading

motivation and reading self-efficacy, and (2) attendance records. The content and construct

validity of the questionnaire were established through a structured expert review and pilot

testing process. Specifically, the instrument was evaluated by five experts in English as a

Foreign Language (EFL) and educational assessment, who reviewed each item according to

relevance, clarity, and representativeness. Items achieving a Content Validity Index (CVI) ≥

0.80 were retained. Subsequently, the questionnaire was piloted with 15 adult learners

enrolled in comparable vocational education programs to assess item comprehension, clarity,

and reliability. Feedback from the pilot phase led to minor modifications in wording and

format, ensuring that the instrument was theoretically appropriate and contextually adapted

to measure affective dimensions related to English reading among vulnerable adult learners.

The intervention was implemented over 10 instructional sessions conducted four times

per week (approximately 2.5 weeks). The pretest phase included the administration of the

reading test and questionnaire under standardized conditions. The TBLT intervention was

delivered during eight sessions following the three-stage task-based cycle: pre-task

preparation, task cycle, and post-task language focus. During the pre-task stage, the instructor

activated relevant vocabulary, introduced contextual information, and clarified reading

objectives and success criteria. During the task cycle, learners completed meaningful reading

activities individually, in pairs, or in small groups, producing concrete outcomes related to

the assigned tasks. During the post-task stage, participants shared results, received feedback,

and reflected on relevant language features emerging from the activities. Tasks were

contextualized around employability and entrepreneurship scenarios, including simple

manuals, instructions, notices, labels, and product information sheets. Finally, the posttest and

questionnaire were administered under conditions equivalent to those of the pretest.

Data analysis was conducted using SPSS statistical software. Descriptive statistics

included means, standard deviations, medians, and frequency distributions. The normality

assumption was examined using the Shapiro–Wilk test. Depending on data distribution,

pretest and posttest comparisons were performed using paired-samples t-tests or Wilcoxon

signed-rank tests. Additionally, effect sizes (Cohen’s d or r) were calculated to determine the

magnitude of observed changes. The internal consistency of the questionnaire was evaluated

using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, confirming the reliability of the scales measuring reading

motivation and self-efficacy.

In addition, the present study presents a number of methodological limitations that

need to be considered. First, because no control group was included, it is difficult to determine

whether the observed improvements in English reading performance can be attributed

exclusively to the TBLT intervention. Second, the convenience sampling method reduces the

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representativeness of the sample because participants were selected according to their

availability instead of through a random sampling procedure. Third, the short duration of the

intervention may have constrained the magnitude of observable improvements and the

consolidation of reading skills over time. Consecutively, these factors collectively result in

limited generalizability of the findings beyond the specific population of vulnerable adults

enrolled in the RIOKUNA program. Despite these limitations, the study provides valuable

insights into task-based learning in municipal craft training contexts, highlighting practical

implications for instructional design and future research with larger, more diverse samples

and extended interventions.

RESULTS

The following section describes the findings obtained from the Task-Based Language

Teaching (TBLT) intervention designed to strengthen English reading skills among 98

vulnerable adult learners participating in the RIOKUNA program at the Riobamba Municipal

Craft Training Center. The intervention was implemented over a period of 10 sessions,

delivered at a rate of four sessions per week during the 2025–2026 academic period. The

analysis compares participants’ reading performance before and after the intervention,

focusing on changes in reading comprehension, motivation, and self-efficacy.

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Table 1 summarizes the descriptive statistics for participants’ pretest and posttest reading

scores. The results indicate substantial improvement in English reading performance

following the TBLT intervention.

Table 1

Summary of Descriptive Statistics for Pretest and Posttest Reading Scores

Measure

Pretest (%)

Posttest (%)

Mean Difference

95% CI of

Difference

Mean

45.2

72.5

27.3

24.8 – 29.8

12.4

10.8

—

Median

—

Min

—

Max

—

The mean reading score increased by 27.3 percentage points, reflecting a marked enhancement

in reading proficiency. The relatively low standard deviation in the posttest indicates that

most participants improved consistently.

Affective Variables: Motivation and Self-Efficacy

The initial and post-intervention scores related to learners’ motivation and self-efficacy were

evaluated to assess affective gains. Table 2 summarizes these results, including effect sizes

and 95% confidence intervals.

Table 2

Pretest–Posttest Comparison for Motivation and Self-Efficacy

Variable

Pretest

Mean (SD)

Posttest

Mean (SD)

t-value

p-value

Cohen’s d

95% CI

Motivation

3.2 (0.7)

4.1 (0.6)

9.84

<.001

0.96

0.64 – 1.28

Self-

Efficacy

3.0 (0.8)

4.0 (0.7)

10.21

<.001

1.05

0.72 – 1.38

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Paired t-tests demonstrated statistically significant improvements in both motivation (t = 9.84,

p < .001) and self-efficacy (t = 10.21, p < .001). The observed strength of the effects provides

evidence that the intervention effectively enhanced learners’ confidence and engagement in

English reading tasks.

These results collectively indicate that the TBLT intervention produced robust gains in

both cognitive (reading performance) and affective domains (motivation and self-efficacy).

Including confidence intervals and effect size measures improves the credibility and

understanding of the results, providing further support for the effectiveness of task-based

approaches in municipal craft training settings.

Participant Engagement and Feedback

After completing the intervention, participants were asked to provide feedback on their

experience. Out of 98 participants, 85% reported that the tasks were engaging and relevant to

their personal and professional goals. Learners emphasized that the tasks effectively

connected English reading to authentic situations, including reading instructions, product

sheets, and safety protocols. Participants also indicated that they felt more confident in their

reading abilities and motivated to continue learning English after the intervention, reflecting

the practical and affective impact of the TBLT approach.

Statistical Analysis and Follow-Up

The final analysis involved additional statistical procedures conducted with SPSS. Descriptive

analyses, normality assessment, paired-samples t-tests, and effect size estimation were

performed as previously described. Additionally, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was applied

as a non-parametric verification method, while the internal consistency of the reading

motivation and self-efficacy questionnaire was examined through Cronbach’s alpha, resulting

in a coefficient of 0.87 and demonstrating strong reliability.

The analysis of the results shows that the TBLT intervention led to significant

improvements in reading performance among vulnerable adult learners. The large effect size

further highlights the effectiveness of the intervention. Additionally, the improvements in

motivation and self-efficacy suggest that TBLT not only enhanced reading skills but also

contributed to a more positive attitude toward English learning. These results underscore the

value of task-based learning in adult education, particularly in non-formal training contexts

like the RIOKUNA program, where practical language skills can directly impact

employability and entrepreneurship opportunities.

The positive participant feedback reinforces the relevance of TBLT in real-world,

vocational settings. The study contributes valuable insights for inclusive educational practices

and provides evidence that task-based learning can be a transformative tool for vulnerable

adult learners, linking language learning to their practical needs and career aspirations.

DISCUSSION

The evidence obtained from this study suggests that Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

intervention significantly improved English reading skills among vulnerable adult learners in

the RIOKUNA program. The increase in reading performance, as evidenced by a mean pretest

score of 45.2% and a posttest score of 72.5%, is consistent with previous research showing

TBLT as an effective approach for enhancing language skills (Ellis et al., 2019). The effect

magnitude obtained in the analysis (Cohen’s d = 1.89) further supports the substantial impact

of TBLT on reading development, aligning with findings from studies reporting significant

The influence of task-based language teaching on the development of english reading skills in vulnerable adult

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gains in reading motivation and comprehension when task-based learning is applied (Ismail

et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2024).

In addition, the improvement in reading-related affective variables, such as motivation and

self-efficacy, highlights the holistic benefits of TBLT. Research in similar contexts has shown

that task-based instruction fosters higher levels of learner motivation and confidence (Yu et

al., 2025; Chen & Wang, 2019). This issue is especially significant within adult education

settings, as learners often encounter various barriers, such as gaps in their formal education

and limited previous exposure to English, which may affect their participation and

engagement (Lu, 2025). The findings of this study suggest that TBLT’s focus on meaningful,

real-world tasks helped increase participants’ motivation and confidence in reading English,

which, in turn, contributed to their academic success.

One reason TBLT improved reading skills is its focus on authentic, context-driven

tasks that mirror real-life demands. Learners were required to locate information, interpret

instructions, and navigate functional texts related to craft and entrepreneurship. This task

authenticity encouraged active engagement, strengthened inferential reasoning, and

promoted the application of reading strategies. Unlike traditional rote memorization, TBLT

required learners to process information meaningfully, leading to more durable

comprehension and skill retention (Ellis et al., 2019).

The observed increase in motivation and self-efficacy can be explained through

Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Repeated mastery experiences during scaffolded reading

tasks allowed learners to achieve small, attainable goals, reinforcing their sense of

competence. Vicarious experiences through peer collaboration and observation provided

models of successful reading behavior. Social persuasion through teacher feedback and low-

threat collaborative tasks helped reduce anxiety and build confidence. Consequently,

participants’ beliefs in their capability to handle English reading tasks improved, leading to

higher motivation, greater persistence, and increased engagement with the material (Bandura,

1997; Bandura, 2011).

However, some studies argue that the impact of TBLT may vary depending on the

context and learners’ specific needs. In contrast to formal classroom settings, evidence

indicates that applying TBLT in non-formal educational contexts, especially for vulnerable

adults, requires careful adaptation (Adjei-Mensah, Boakye, & Masenge, 2023). This study

demonstrates that TBLT can indeed be successfully adapted and implemented in non-formal

vocational education, providing a valuable contribution to the literature on inclusive EFL

instruction for socially vulnerable populations.

CONCLUSIONS

The analysis conducted in this research confirms that Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

intervention significantly enhanced English reading skills among vulnerable adult learners in

the RIOKUNA program. Pretest–posttest comparisons revealed substantial gains, indicating

that contextualized, task-oriented reading activities grounded in craft-related scenarios

effectively foster functional English literacy. This suggests that connecting reading tasks to

authentic, real-world situations can meaningfully improve comprehension and practical

application of English in technical contexts.

In addition to cognitive gains, the intervention produced statistically significant

improvements in both motivation and self-efficacy, with large effect sizes. These results

underscore that TBLT not only develops reading competence but also positively influences

learners’ confidence and engagement, promoting sustained participation and intrinsic

motivation to continue learning English. This dual effect highlights the value of integrating

Andrea Cevallos / Maria Heredia

ISSN 3103-1129

affective components into instructional design for adult learners in socially vulnerable

contexts.

The study emphasizes the importance of designing authentic, task-based learning activities

that align with learners’ professional and personal realities. Educators should incorporate

reading tasks that simulate actual workplace demands, such as interpreting instructions,

manuals, or safety protocols. Doing so strengthens both literacy and practical competencies,

enhances learner engagement, and supports employability and entrepreneurship in craft-

based training environments. These findings advocate for pedagogical models that integrate

functional language use, meaningful tasks, and learner-centered approaches in technical EFL

instruction.

Despite the positive outcomes, the study presents several limitations, including the

lack of a control group, convenience sampling, short intervention duration, and the reduced

possibility of applying the results to broader populations. Future studies should consider

using larger samples with randomized samples, extended interventions, and longitudinal

designs to examine the sustainability of reading skills, motivation, and self-efficacy over time.

Additionally, replicating the study across multiple municipal craft training centers would

provide more comprehensive evidence regarding the efficacy of TBLT in socially vulnerable

adult populations and inform best practices for inclusive technical education.

This research did not receive any external funding from public, private, or nonprofit

organizations. The study was conducted with institutional authorization from the RIOKUNA

program, without financial support that could influence the design, implementation, analysis,

or interpretation of the findings. The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest

related to the research, authorship, or publication process. Regarding data availability, the

dataset generated and analyzed during this study is not publicly available due to participant

confidentiality considerations; however, the data supporting the findings are available from

the corresponding author upon reasonable request and in accordance with applicable ethical

and institutional guidelines.

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